China's development can be traced back as far as 8,000 years, and was thought to have been the first civilization to bring agriculture to the Near East. Recent findings show that the cultivation of grains like rice and millet were cultivated exclusively in China, independent from the Western world, at its beginnings before 5,000 B.C.E. Agriculture in the Near East began about 3,000 years later, about 2,000 B.C.E.
This ancient civilization grew around the three main rivers in China, the Yellow, the Yangzi, and the Xi. Neolithic culture grew rapidly during this time, with the emergence of a number of towns and cities. The earliest artworks that were found in China are pained pottery. The cultures that emerged around the banks of these rivers are classified as "painted pottery cultures", for their construction of ancient ceramic pottery. The images on the ancient pottery pieces allow viewers to understand the specific culture that created the pottery. Below is an example of this neolithic pottery, and on this piece, we see a stylized human face, accompanied by images of fish. From this, we can understand that fishing was important to these early people, as it sustained life for these cultures. Other civilizations in the west are also known for their paintedBowl, Yangshao culture, painted pottery. 5000-4000 B.C.E.
pottery during this time period. The ancient Minoans were essentially early Greeks who settled on the island of Crete during the Bronze Age. The pottery that this culture created is comparable to the pottery of the neolithic chinese cultures. The Minoans also used motifs that involved aquatic life, but the surface design would include more waves and swirls, like an image taken under the sea. Both the Minoans and the neolithic Chinese cultures are showing one common element through their pottery: that the water is important to their lives, and serves as a sustaining force to their livelihood. The Greeks were also creators of various types of pottery that each had specific functions. The surface design of the vessels displayed different styles and methods, depending on the specific period they were created in. On the right is an example of proto-geometric style Greek pottery, which also correlates with a similar time period as the Yangshao bowl. As you can see the surface design of the amphora is much different than that of the bowl, the Greek geometric period is characterized by the use of curved, or wavy lines, zig-zags, and geometric shapes which were used as design elements on the pottery, and unlike the Minoans, the motifs that were used were more decorative in nature. The construction of art after the stone age of china can be classified into dynasties. Below are the major dynasties that bring about the most significant artworks in Chinese history: Bronze Age: Shang Dynasty Zhou Dynasty The Chinese Empire: Qin Dynasty Han Dynasty Six Dynasties: The Three Kingdoms Sui Dynasty Tang Dynasty Song Dynasty Yuan Dynasty Ming Dynasty Qing Dynasty |
Some of the practices of the early dynasties correlate with those found in Western cultures. An example of this is from the Shang Dynasty, during the Bronze age. Those who had the knowledge to work with bronze to create tools, weapons, and ritualistic vessels were the ones who were in authority, and proclaimed to have the power to communicate with the supernatural world, acting as intermediaries between the human and supernatural realms. Sacrifices were made to deities representing nature and fertility, and to the primary deity Shangdi, meaning "supreme or heavenly ruler". The priests would use oracle bones, or animal bones to receive messages from these deities, the piece of bone would be inscribed with a question and then would be heated until it would crack, and the crack would then be interpreted by the priest. This process is remarkably similar to the ancient Etruscan practice of haruspicy, another type of divination ritual. Many cultures, both western and eastern practice divination rituals to determine the fate of the future. Other rituals or practices that are shared with the Western world include offering food and drink to the deceased, and providing for their afterlife.
Shang tombs show that the people of this period were warriors, their tombs reveal that many humans and animals were sacrificed along with the deceased, and contain hundreds of jade, ivory, gold, silver and lacquered items, as well as bronze vessels that were constructed to ritualistically hold the food and drink for the deceased. The early Chinese people believed that their deceased ancestors would provide protection and provision for them as long as sacrifices and rituals were performed to keep their ancestors' spirits alive. These ritual bronzes were an important part of the sacrificial offerings that were made, and the exteriors of these vessels are covered with elaborate relief sculpture of images based on animal forms and often included the taotie, a symbol of fear and force, yet also a symbol of protection. Another culture that shared this provision for the afterlife are the ancient Egyptians. They believed that the body had to be mummified and properly buried in order for the ka to live on in the afterlife. There was also elaborate provisions made, similar to those found from the Shang dynasty, and included an offering of food and drink to the ka as a sacrifice, and also for sustenance for its journey into the afterlife.
Shang tombs show that the people of this period were warriors, their tombs reveal that many humans and animals were sacrificed along with the deceased, and contain hundreds of jade, ivory, gold, silver and lacquered items, as well as bronze vessels that were constructed to ritualistically hold the food and drink for the deceased. The early Chinese people believed that their deceased ancestors would provide protection and provision for them as long as sacrifices and rituals were performed to keep their ancestors' spirits alive. These ritual bronzes were an important part of the sacrificial offerings that were made, and the exteriors of these vessels are covered with elaborate relief sculpture of images based on animal forms and often included the taotie, a symbol of fear and force, yet also a symbol of protection. Another culture that shared this provision for the afterlife are the ancient Egyptians. They believed that the body had to be mummified and properly buried in order for the ka to live on in the afterlife. There was also elaborate provisions made, similar to those found from the Shang dynasty, and included an offering of food and drink to the ka as a sacrifice, and also for sustenance for its journey into the afterlife.
The ding is a type of ritualistic cooking vessel. In addition to this, there are a number of other types of ritualistic bronzes, each having their own unique function, similar to the variations of greek vessels. The difference is that bronze was a sacred material, and was never used for everyday items or tools, unlike ceramics. The method for constructing these large vessels is called the piece-mold casting technique. Even though other cultures were casting bronze during this time, the ancient Chinese developed this method independent of influence.
Prior to the Qin dynasty, China was divided into a feudal society that developed during the Zhou dynasty. The state of Qin conquered other states and unified the land for the first time under one ruler, emperor Shihuangdi in 221 BCE. Because of the threat of possible assassination and rebellion of the people, Shihuangdi sought immortality, and has his tomb built during his lifetime, prior to becoming emperor. Discovered only in 1974, the tomb of Shihuangdi is a massive mausoleum including a vast army of terra cotta soldiers and horses, which were individually designed, built and fired. This accompaniment to the tomb shows Shihuangdi's desire for protection and power even in the afterlife. The building of his tomb during his lifetime, and the grandeur that is displayed connects to the beginnings of the pyramid during the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Huge complexes were constructed for pharaohs that began during their lifetime because of their shear size and intricate design. Below we can see the parallel between both cultures and how they commemorated their deceased rulers:
Prior to the Qin dynasty, China was divided into a feudal society that developed during the Zhou dynasty. The state of Qin conquered other states and unified the land for the first time under one ruler, emperor Shihuangdi in 221 BCE. Because of the threat of possible assassination and rebellion of the people, Shihuangdi sought immortality, and has his tomb built during his lifetime, prior to becoming emperor. Discovered only in 1974, the tomb of Shihuangdi is a massive mausoleum including a vast army of terra cotta soldiers and horses, which were individually designed, built and fired. This accompaniment to the tomb shows Shihuangdi's desire for protection and power even in the afterlife. The building of his tomb during his lifetime, and the grandeur that is displayed connects to the beginnings of the pyramid during the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Huge complexes were constructed for pharaohs that began during their lifetime because of their shear size and intricate design. Below we can see the parallel between both cultures and how they commemorated their deceased rulers:
Traditional Chinese painting developed during the period of the Three Kingdoms, this is confirmed through literary sources of the period. Landscape became a major theme in Chinese painting, which is one of the themes that emerged during this period. Landscape painting revealed the importance of the spiritual, wandering through the wilderness served as refreshment of the spirit to the Daoists, and these paintings represented that spiritual renewal. There were two schools of painting that emerged: the xieyi school, which is characterized by stylized forms and freehand brush work, and the gongbi school which displays close attention to detail and meticulous brush work. Paintings would often include a calligraphic inscription, and by the Song dynasty the calligraphy that accompanied a painting would act as an elaboration of the picture, or would be a poem to accompany the painting. The media that was used was ink and a long haired brush, that would be used for painting as well as calligraphy, and this process would be done on paper, or silk. Including text along with the visual of the painting, explains the concept of pursuing knowledge through the arts, which refers to teachings of Confucianism.
In the western world, painting in combination with text is seen roughly during a similar period, and extends into the middle ages, through the Renaissance. Scribes and monks would conduct the procedure of copying sacred texts and important documents, and incorporate visuals into or alongside the text. This procedure, known as manuscript illumination, can be traced from Ireland to Rome, to Istanbul, and the style of the manuscript would depend on where the manuscript was illuminated and during what time period.
While there are visual similarities between the Tang painting and the 6th century manuscript illumination, shown above, there are fundamnetal differences as well. The inscription in the Tang painting is included to elaborate on and add to the painting, as well as display the artists' ability to use the brush; the calligraphy has an aesthetic purpose as well as a functional one. In the manuscript illumination, however, the images are used to fortify the text, acting as an illustration, or visual acompaniment to the text's content.The addition of images to sacred manuscripts were added not only to adorn the cherished text, but also to inform those who were illiterate. Another componant of Chinese paintings are the red seals that adorn the perimiter of the painting. These seals are marks of ownership, and admiration of those of high status. A similarity that both Chinese painting and early manuscript illumination share is the format of the scroll. Many Chinese paintings, especially during the Song dynasty, were constructed on silk or paper, and had an extreme panoramic composition. This format is called the handscroll, and was meant to be viewed one section at a time, from right to left, creating a narrative to the viewer. Early illuminated manuscripts shared the scroll format, but this format prevented the addition of colored inks and paint, because the rolling of the scroll would destruct the addition of this media. The establishment ofthe codex allowed illuminators to embellish manuscripts with a variety of pigments and gold, and the pages would be bound, one on top of the other, instead of the rolling of one long document.
After the 16th century, Western influence changes the structure and content of traditional Chinese painting. Paintings begining in the 17th century, and especially evident in the 20th century, were characterized by the addition of Western devices like scientific perspective, and Western subject matter. In the painting below, the use of scientific linear perspective can be noted from the establishment of the horizon line, foreground, middle ground, and background.
While there are visual similarities between the Tang painting and the 6th century manuscript illumination, shown above, there are fundamnetal differences as well. The inscription in the Tang painting is included to elaborate on and add to the painting, as well as display the artists' ability to use the brush; the calligraphy has an aesthetic purpose as well as a functional one. In the manuscript illumination, however, the images are used to fortify the text, acting as an illustration, or visual acompaniment to the text's content.The addition of images to sacred manuscripts were added not only to adorn the cherished text, but also to inform those who were illiterate. Another componant of Chinese paintings are the red seals that adorn the perimiter of the painting. These seals are marks of ownership, and admiration of those of high status. A similarity that both Chinese painting and early manuscript illumination share is the format of the scroll. Many Chinese paintings, especially during the Song dynasty, were constructed on silk or paper, and had an extreme panoramic composition. This format is called the handscroll, and was meant to be viewed one section at a time, from right to left, creating a narrative to the viewer. Early illuminated manuscripts shared the scroll format, but this format prevented the addition of colored inks and paint, because the rolling of the scroll would destruct the addition of this media. The establishment ofthe codex allowed illuminators to embellish manuscripts with a variety of pigments and gold, and the pages would be bound, one on top of the other, instead of the rolling of one long document.
After the 16th century, Western influence changes the structure and content of traditional Chinese painting. Paintings begining in the 17th century, and especially evident in the 20th century, were characterized by the addition of Western devices like scientific perspective, and Western subject matter. In the painting below, the use of scientific linear perspective can be noted from the establishment of the horizon line, foreground, middle ground, and background.
Japanese Art
The four islands that form today's Japan are thought to have once shared the Asian continent. About 15,000 years ago, melting glaciers brought up the sea level, which covered the lowlands under water, which now is the Sea of Japan. There is evedence of human existance in Japan as far as 30,000 years ago, but the first traces of art emerge during the Neolithic period. Japanese history is divided into the following timeframes:
Pre-historic Japan: Jomon Period c. 11,000 BCE-400 BCE Yayoi Period c. 400 BCE-300 CE Kofun Period c. 300- 552 Asuka Period: 552-645 Nara Period: 645-754 Heian Period: 794-1185 Kamakura Period: 1185-1333 Muromachi Period: 1338–1573 Momoyama Period: 1573–1603 Edo Period: 1603- 1867 Pre-War Period: 1867- 1945 Post-War Period: 1945- Contemporary |
Like the prehistoric Chinese, the earliest artforms of the Japanese were ceramics, also developed during the Neolithic period. Ceramics from this period date from earlier than 10,000 BCE, the oldest known compared to any other culture. Like the Chinese, Japanese ceramics are characterized by simplified, geometric form. They differ, though, due to thier incised surface, which covers the entire outside of the vessel. The shapes of these vessels were also unique, having a flame-like quality to the rim, and appearing strongly abstract, and decorative rather than functional.
People living during the middle to late Jomon period are known for their stylized figure sculptures, called dogu. These sculptures most likely served the purpose of an effigy, a representation of the owner of the dogu, into which they could transfer sickness or a bad experience. The dogu then would be broken to destroy the negative circumstance. The form of these sculptures moderately resemble ancient Etruscan cinerary urns, as displayed below:
The differences between these sculptures are also evident. The dogu was a representative sculpture that was highly stylized and decorative, bearing a primative reseblance to African sculpture. The ancient Etruscans, however, used these containers in a functional way; to store the remains of the deceased. The personification of the urn shows the decorative nature of the sculpture, abstractly representing the likeness of the dead.
Shintoism is considered to be the indigenous religion of Japan, but during the Asuka period, along with new innovations in medicine, agricultural methods, architecture, and new developments in art, philosophy, music, writing and the establishment of a centralized government structure, Buddhism became a major practiced religion. The Buddhist temples in Japan differ from those in China, Japanese Buddhist temples during the Asuka period were constructed within a compound of other buildings. The oldest wooden Buddhist temple is Horyu-ji. It lies as connected to covered corridors that form a border to a courtyard, that contains the two other buildings in the complex, the kondo, or golden hall, and a pagoda. Other buildings that lie outside the compound walls include an outer gate, a lecture hall, a belfry, and a storage place for sacred texts.
Shintoism is considered to be the indigenous religion of Japan, but during the Asuka period, along with new innovations in medicine, agricultural methods, architecture, and new developments in art, philosophy, music, writing and the establishment of a centralized government structure, Buddhism became a major practiced religion. The Buddhist temples in Japan differ from those in China, Japanese Buddhist temples during the Asuka period were constructed within a compound of other buildings. The oldest wooden Buddhist temple is Horyu-ji. It lies as connected to covered corridors that form a border to a courtyard, that contains the two other buildings in the complex, the kondo, or golden hall, and a pagoda. Other buildings that lie outside the compound walls include an outer gate, a lecture hall, a belfry, and a storage place for sacred texts.
The layout of this complex correlates with the European Medieval monastery. The structure of the Western monastery date back as far as the 4th century, and the origins of the concept of the monastery date back even further, identified in the Old and New Testament of the Bible. The development of the Western monastery occurred when different established laws for how to live a life of service to God, and to be set apart from society were created, forming different orders. During the Middle Ages, the Benedictine Rule, or order, established by St. Benedict in 529 AD, brought about the establishment of the Benedictine monastery. The structure of the monastery during this period was made up of components that compare to the compound at Horyu-ji, including the cellarium, or store house, the cloister, the campanile, or bell tower, the dorter, or dormitory, and the sacristy, where sacred vestments and vessels were kept. Below are images of a Benedictine floor plan, and a model of the floor plan:
Another intriguing connection between Japanese art and the Western world is wood sculpture. Wood sculpture became popular during the Heian period, along with new innovations in painting and calligraphy. Wood is an unusual material to use as a sculpture medium because of its susceptibility to warping and cracking. The Japanese had a special technique that they would use to prevent fluctuations of the medium, called yosegi-zukuri, or joined wood sculpture, the sculpture was comprised of samller parts of individual pieces of carved wood, that would be assembled to produce a whole, elliminating the chances for cracking or warping. Wood sculpture during this period in Europe is most evident in the north, mainly in Germany. It was used as a sculpture medium for sacred statuary and sculpture, similar to the Japanese. Unlike the Japanese, Western techniques of wood sculpture did not involve nearly as many methods. None the less, we can see the relation between the two sculptures below, through the use of medium and stylization:
Between the two sculptures we see one main connection: the expression of emotion. The Kuya sculpture is showing the attributes of this monk's charismatic Buddhist chants that could be heard throughout the countryside. The artist, Kosho personifies the chants coming out of the monk's mouth by putting them into the sculptural form of six small buddhas, one for easch syllable of the chant. On the right, the German Gothic wooden sculpture reflects the pain and agony of Christ's sacrificial death, not reflected through harmonious bodily proportions, or aesthetics, but rather pure agony: Mary's despair as she hold the pierced, broken body of her son.
Interdisciplinary Lesson Plans that Include References to Chinese and Japanese Art History
Below are links to lessons that include connections to the art and culture of China and Japan.
Ohio State University: National Constortium for Teaching about Asia
http://ncta.osu.edu/lesson_on_jp.html
The China Project
http://www.globaled.org/chinaproject/c_teaching.php
The Getty Museum
http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/asian_influences/
Ohio State University: National Constortium for Teaching about Asia
http://ncta.osu.edu/lesson_on_jp.html
The China Project
http://www.globaled.org/chinaproject/c_teaching.php
The Getty Museum
http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/asian_influences/